Fetal Body Measurements
Fetal measurements provide useful information about changes with aging in forensic cases in which a sufficient amount of soft tissue is present. According to pediatric literature e.g., refs. 19,20 the measurements most commonly used in the fetus are total body length and crown rump length however, anthro-pometric information from the lower extremity is useful. Scammon 19 describes methods of using data from the lower extremity, including leg length, thigh length trochanter to knee , and foot...
Putrefaction
The result of autolysis is the development of a slightly acidic, anaerobic, nutrient-rich environment, with significant degradation of biomolecules at the cellular level. In this fertile milieu, devoid of normally protective and defensive cells and barriers, the proliferation of both invasive and opportunistic endogenous micro-organisms can be rapid and extensive. Ultimately, bacterial growth can affect and transform all the tissues in the body, being limited only by environmental factors, such...
Statistical Considerations Related to Body Parts
The abdominal trunk particularly the soft tissue and bony structures of the back, including the spine and pelvis are most likely to survive the rigors of separation, incineration, decomposition, and the activities of carnivores. The extremities are susceptible to damage by all of these factors. Further, the odds of finding antemortem studies of the extremities are less than those of some other body parts. In a survey of films in a large university hospital radiology department 34 ,...
Motor Vehicle and CarPedestrian Accidents
MVAs are a leading cause of death at all ages in the United States 17 . Motor vehicles usually refer to automobiles, trucks, and motorcycles, but trains and various kinds of aircraft also produce blunt force trauma during crashes. The requirements of the anthropologist often will vary with the type of vehicle. In the deaths of presumed passengers in planes and trains, the primary analysis usually focuses on the identification of body elements leading to the establishment of a positive...
Biomechanics
In engineering, the design of failure-resistant structures requires three important pieces of information a the geometry of the structure, b the mechanical properties of the materials from which the structure is made, and c the location and direction of the loads to which the structure is subjected in service. 3 The biomechanics of bone has been thoroughly studied and presented by numerous authors e.g., 13-16 . As noted previously, bone tissue is able to resist compressive forces while...
Mummification
Mummification or dehydration of tissues is neither a direct consequence of autolysis or putrefaction but is, in a sense, a competing process. As a function of environmental conditions, the rate at which water evaporates from the body or from exposed sections of the body can be rapid enough to reach a point where dehydration of individual tissues precludes the bacterial action of putrefaction. However, such tissues are subjected to slow oxidative processes that result in the characteristic...
Foreword
Publius Syrus stated back in 42 B.C., You cannot put the same shoe on every foot. Maxim 596 Though written long before the advent of forensic science, Syrus' maxim summarizes the theme of Forensic Medicine of the Lower Extremity Human Identification and Trauma Analysis of the Thigh, Leg, and Foot. Put simply, the lower extremity is a tremendously variable anatomic region. This variation is beneficial to forensic experts. Differences in the leg and foot can be used to establish individual...
References Xex
1. Maples WR. Trauma analysis by the forensic anthropologist. In Forensic osteology advances in the identification of human remains. Reichs KJ, ed. Springfield Thomas, 1986 218-228. 2. Fenton TW, Birkby WT, Cornelison JA. Fast and safe non-bleaching method for forensic skeletal preparation. J Forens Sci 48 274-276 2003 . 3. Sommer HG, Anderson S. Cleaning skeletons with dermestid beetles two refinements in the method. Curator 17 290-298 1974 . 4. Russell WC. Biology of the dermestid beetle with...
c 1
Fig. 33. A Frontal radiograph of the knee shows fibrous cortical defects of the distal femur. B T-1 weighted MR shows the identical lesions in the same patient. This combination of lesions is sufficiently unequivocal to allow a match. Reprinted from Brogdon, BG, Forensic radiology 1998 with permission from CRC Press. Fig. 33. A Frontal radiograph of the knee shows fibrous cortical defects of the distal femur. B T-1 weighted MR shows the identical lesions in the same patient. This combination of...
Determination of Stature
Extensive research on World War II and Korean War casualties 32 has enabled investigators to develop methods of estimating stature based on measurements of long bones. The length of the femur is the most reliable basis for calculating stature 28 . The tibia is also useful, but there has been some controversy over the accuracy of tibial measurements, particularly the most appropriate location of the more distal measuring point. Apparently, the plafond of the tibia is the preferred site of...
Autolysis
Autolysis is the self-digestion of the cell. In the context of postmortem decomposition, it refers to the process by which catabolically active enzymes are able to act on cellular organelles and molecular components that would not normally serve as substrates. The release of these enzymes from their subcellular locations marks the beginning of an irreversible process that will eventually result in the complete reduction of the newly dead organism to the remnants of decomposition, available to...
Plane Accidents
The severity of damage to occupants during aircraft crashes will vary with the angle at which the craft strikes the ground 39 . In very steep impacts, the craft and all passengers will be buried in a relatively small and high compacted area. Those components that weigh more decelerate more slowly, driving forward into and through the intervening material, including human bodies. When the angle of impact is lower, the remains may be scattered over a larger area but the degree of fragmentation...
Exposure Factors
All radiographic equipment will have a control panel allowing the technician to select exposure factors milliamperes ma , exposure time s , and kilovoltage kVp appropriate for the body part and its thickness. Milliamperage and time may be combined as milliampere-seconds mAs 68 . Table 3 is a simplified exposure chart, which is suggested as a starting point for the production of useable images. Suggested milliampere-seconds, kilovoltage settings, Fig. 42. Metaphyseal fracture of the so-called...
References Qsp
1. Glasser O. Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen and the early history of the roentgen rays, Springfield, 111 Charles C. Thomas, 1934. 2. Linton, OW. News of X-ray reaches America days after announcement of Roentgen's discovery. Am J Roent 165 471-472 1995 . 3. Brecher R, Brecher E. The rays a history of radiology in the United States and Canada, Baltimore, Md Williams and Wilkins, 1969. 4. Halperin EC. X-rays at the bar 1986-1910. Invest Radiol 23 639-646 1988 . 5. Cox J, Kirkpatrick RC. The new...
Identification in Mass Casualty Situations
The same techniques and variables that are taken into consideration when identifying individual skeletal elements apply to mass casualty situations, except for the logistical problems that are complicated by the size of the matrix i.e., the number of remains involved and the fact that they are sometimes commingled and often fragmented . Most mass casualty operations take on the characteristics of a field exercise, because a fear of contaminated blood and body fluids has closed the doors of most...
Sex Determination
Skeletal maturation accelerates in females at a greater rate than in males after the third or fourth year of life. However, this difference is not a useful determinant. Fig. 10. Mature newborn knee showing calcified distal femoral and proximal tibial epiphyses. Reprinted from Brogdon, BG, Forensic radiology 1998 with permission from CRC Press. Fig. 10. Mature newborn knee showing calcified distal femoral and proximal tibial epiphyses. Reprinted from Brogdon, BG, Forensic radiology 1998 with...
Patterns of Torture and Terrorism
Physical beating is a widespread form of torture 56 . Palmatoria is a form of localized torture virtually unique to the small West African country Guinea-Bissau. Palmatoria involve repetitive blows by a slender rod to the shin, where the tibia lies closest beneath the skin. Ordinary radiographs of somewhat limited quality have shown a periosteal reaction, presumably as a result of subperiosteal hemorrhage and hematoma. Somewhat peculiar endosteal and medullary changes have also been seen Fig....
Introduction 1
The estimation of age at death based on anatomical information from the lower extremity involves an assessment of physiological age and an attempt to correlate it with chronological age. Specific techniques employed in this process vary with the sample available for analysis as well as the general age of the individual 1,2 . Some techniques are specific to particular bones or even parts of bones. Techniques that would be ideal to use to estimate age at death in fetal remains are irrelevant in...
Age Determination
The radiologic determination of maturity or prematurity at birth is based on the ossification of secondary centers at the knee. The distal femoral epiphysis will be Fig. 9. Frontal and lateral views of a honey-baked ham. Fig. 9. Frontal and lateral views of a honey-baked ham. partially ossified in 90 or more of full-term fetuses. The proximal tibial epiphysis will be similarly visible in 80 or more of mature neonates Fig. 10 . Thereafter, chronological age is estimated according to skeletal...
Contributors
Scott D. Batterman, phd Batterman Engineering, LLC, Cherry Hill, NJ Steven C. Batterman, phd Batterman Engineering, LLC, Cherry Hill, NJ and Professor Emeritus of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science and Professor Emeritus of Bioengineering in Orthopaedic Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA B. G. Brogdon, md University Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Radiology, Department of Radiology, University of South Alabama College of...
Positioning
Standard radiographic positions for the lower extremity are required in order to match features on antemortem radiographs 68 . Figures 89 through 96 provide information that can be used to determine how to position the body part and central beam of the X-ray for each standard position. Each positioning photo is accompanied by a sample of the image to be expected from it. Fig. 44. Old periosteal new bone around the distal femur from earlier trauma arrows . Reprinted from ref. 42 with permission...
Film
X-ray film is sensitive not only to X-rays but almost every color of light. It is packaged in light-proof cardboard boxes and must be handled in a darkroom equipped with an approved X-ray safety light. X-ray film is also sensitive to heat, low humidity, and stray Fig. 35. A murder victim found beside an interstate highway had fatal large-caliber gunshot wounds in the head and chest. Incidental finding of a small-caliber bullet in the thigh could be historically linked to a gunshot wound made...
References Bii
1. Kerley ER. Forensic anthropology and crimes involving children. J Forensic Sci 1976 21 333-339. 2. Ubelaker DH. Methodological considerations in the forensic applications of human skeletal biology. In Biological anthropology of the human skeleton. Katzenberg MA, Saunders SR, eds. New York, NY Wiley-Liss, 2000 pp. 41-67. 3. Bass WM. Human osteology a laboratory and field manual. 3rd ed. Columbia, Mo Missouri Archaeological Society, Inc., 1987. 4. Krogman WM, Iscan MY. The human skeleton in...
Normal Osteology of the Knee Joint and Markers of Stress and Injury
Analysis of the knee for forensic identification has often been overlooked in favor of studies of skeletal elements that have more individualizing features than the knee. However, there may be instances when careful analysis of the knee can provide clues to a person's identity. All the musculoskeletal tissue at the knee should be examined carefully for evidence of antemortem injuries, repetitive stress, and surgical modifications, which, it is hoped, correlate with a specific overuse syndrome...
Disease or Degenerative Change
Degenerative changes are frequently helpful or even definitive in the identification of unknown remains. We have already seen examples in the Ruxton case 14,15 and in the case of heel spurs of the calcaneus. Judging from the literature, it is rare to be able to match skeletal remains by lesions that arise secondary to disease processes. However, certain diseases have such distinctive features that they could be used for identification purposes. Several examples are shown in Figs. 25-29. 3.5.1....
Introduction and Historical Review
While the field of forensic medicine is said to have begun at some indefinite time five or six centuries ago, the origins of forensic radiology can be described more precisely. Wilhem Conrad R ntgen Fig. 1 professor of physics, director of the Physics Institute, and Rector of the University of W rzburg observed an unusual phenomenon while experimenting with cathode ray tubes on November 8, 1895. After 50 d of intensive investigation, he determined that he had discovered a new kind of ray eine...
Further Reading Equations Formulas and Other Sources
Asala SA. Sex determination from the head of the femur of South African whites and blacks. Forensic Sci Int 2001 117 15-22. Alunni-Perret V. et al. Reexamination of a measurement for sexual determination using the supero-inferior femoral neck diameter in a modern European population. J Forensic Sci 2003 48 1-4. Bidmos MA, Asala SA. Discriminant function sexing of the calcaneus of the South African white population. J Forensic Sci 2003 48 1213-1218. Bidmos MA, Dayal MR. Sex determination from...
Bone Remodeling
The normal process of remodeling of compact bone in the long bones of the lower extremity provides histological information that can prove useful in estimating age at death, especially in adults 125-128 . Bone remodeling involves the conversion of primary bone i.e., that formed during the initial ossification of the bone to secondary bone. Bone turnover is accomplished through the action of osteoclasts to create resorption spaces, which are subsequently filled in to form secondary osteons. This...
Ossification Center Appearance and Epiphyseal Union
The appearance and union of the epiphyses associated with bones of the lower extremity can also provide useful information for estimating age at death 73-79 , especially during adolescence. Epiphyses are the bony caps on the ends of long bones and on certain other bony structures. Their appearance and size in radiographic studies of bones with associated soft tissue are particularly useful in determining age at death 80,81 . In examinations of recovered skeletal remains, the small developing...
Forensically Significant Skeletal Anatomy
Nancy E. Tatarek, PhD and Dorothy E. Dean, md Forensically significant cases are those in which remains are recovered that have come from humans who died violently or unexpectedly, or for which the cause of death or manner of death is potentially a legal or otherwise significant issue this may exclude very old or prehistoric remains . This text discusses the subset of forensically significant remains that are partially or completely decomposed, fragmented, or unidentified. This chapter is not...
References 1
1. Rathbun TA, Rathbun BC. Human remains recovered from a shark's stomach in South Carolina. In Haglund WD, Sorg MH, ed. Forensic taphonomy the postmortem fate of human remains. Boca Raton, Fla CRC Press, 1997 449-458. 2. Cook DC, Walker PL. Brief communication gender and sex vive la difference. Am J Phys Anthropol 1998 106 255-259. 3. Saunders SR and Yang D. Sex determination XX or XY from the human skeleton. In Fairgrieve SI, ed. Forensic Osteological Analysis A Book of Case Studies....
Conclusions
Evidence of antemortem injuries and stress usually remains as permanent osteo-logical features in the bone. If recognized and correctly classified, this evidence can become a critical element in the process of victim identification. Fig. 21. Age-related gonarthrosis. Age-related, degenerative gonarthrosis is undoubtedly the most commonly encountered abnormality in the distal femur. It first appears as a general increase of bony lipping of the articular margins and can eventually involve all...
Skeletal Evidence of Knee Injury and Stress
The knee is the largest and one of the strongest joints in the human body. It is a major weight-bearing joint and is subjected to stress and injury even during sedentary daily living. During athletic competition and other strenuous activity, the stress is increased Fig. 16. These thick, strong tendons and capsular structures that cover the posterior aspect of the knee help mold the contours of the underlying bone illustration by the author, reproduced with permission from ref. 1 Hughston Sports...
Bony Landmarks Femur And Tibia
The femur is the longest bone of the human body. It consists of a rounded proximal head that articulates with the acetabulum at the hip, a nearly cylindrical shaft, and a distal metaphysis that forms two large rounded condyles that articulate with the tibia. Forensic Medicine of the Lower Extremity Human Identification and Trauma Analysis Edited by J. Rich, D. E. Dean, and R. H. Powers The Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ Fig. 1. Anterior femur A Anterior view of the entire femur B The distal...